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Anglicisation

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Not to be confused with Anglicism.
For linguistic anglicisation, see Anglicisation (linguistics).

Look up anglicise or anglicize in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Big Ben, a cultural symbol of Britain

Anglicisation or anglicization is a form of cultural assimilation whereby something non-English becomes assimilated into or influenced by the culture of England. It can be sociocultural, in which a non-English or place adopts the English language or culture; institutional, in which institutions are influenced by those of England or the United Kingdom; or linguistic, in which a non-English term or name is altered due to the cultural influence of the English language.[1][2] It can also refer to the influence of English soft power, which includes media, cuisine, popular culture, technology, business practices, laws and political systems.[3]

Anglicisation first occurred in the British Isles, when Celts under the sovereignty of the king of England underwent a process of anglicisation.[4] The Celtic language decline in England was mostly complete by 1000 AD, but continued in Cornwall and other regions until the 18th century. In Scotland, the decline of Scottish Gaelic began during the reign of Malcolm III of Scotland to the point where by the mid-14th century the Scots language was the dominant national language among the Scottish people.[5][6]: 139  In Wales, however, the Welsh language has continued to be spoken by a large part of the country's population due to language revival measures aimed at countering historical anglicisation measures such as the Welsh not.[1][4]

History and examples

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See also: Legacy of the British Empire

Channel Islands

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Further information: History of Jersey § Anglicisation

In the early parts of the 19th century, mostly due to increased immigration from the rest of the British Isles, the town of St Helier in the Channel Islands became a predominantly English-speaking place, though bilingualism was still common. This created a divided linguistic geography, as the people of the countryside continued to use forms of Norman French, and many did not even know English.[7]: 38–9 [8]: 268  English became seen in the Channel Islands as "the language of commercial success and moral and intellectual achievement".[8]: 269  The growth of English and the decline of French brought about the adoption of more values and social structures from Victorian era England.[8] Eventually, this led to the Channel Islands's culture becoming mostly anglicised, which supplanted the traditional Norman-based culture of the Islands.[8]: 270 

From 1912, the educational system of the Channel Islands was delivered solely in English, following the norms of the English educational system.[7] Anglicisation was supported by the British government, and it was suggested that anglicisation would not only encourage loyalty and congeniality between the Channel Islands and Britain, but also provide economic prosperity and improved "general happiness". During the 19th century, there was concern over the practise of sending young Channel Islanders to France for education, as they might have brought back French culture and viewpoints back to the Islands. The upper class in the Channel Islands supported anglicising the Islands, due to the social and economic benefits it would bring. Anglophiles such as John Le Couteur strove to introduce English culture to Jersey.[8]: 268 

British Isles

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Anglicisation was an essential element in the development of British society and of the development of a unified British polity.[1] Within the British Isles, anglicisation can be defined as influence of English culture in Scotland, Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands. Until the 19th century, most significant period for anglicisation in those regions was the High Middle Ages. Between 1000 and 1300, the British Isles became increasingly anglicised. Firstly, the ruling classes of England, who were of Norman origin after the Norman Conquest of 1066, became anglicised as their separate Norman identity, different from the identity of the native Anglo-Saxons, became replaced with a single English national identity.[citation needed]

Secondly, English communities in Wales and Ireland emphasised their English identities, which became established through the settlement of various parts of Wales and Ireland between the 11th and 17th centuries under the guidance of successive English kings. In Wales, this primarily occurred during the conquest of Wales by Edward I, which involved English and Flemish settlers being "planted" in various newly established settlements in Welsh territory. English settlers in Ireland mostly resided in the Pale, a small area concentrated around Dublin. However, much of the land the English settled was not intensively used or densely populated. The culture of settling English populations in Wales and Ireland remained heavy influenced by that of England. These communities were also socially and culturally segregated from the native Irish and Welsh, a distinction which was reinforced by government legislation such as the Statutes of Kilkenny.[4]

Ireland

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See also: British rule in Ireland and Ireland–United Kingdom relations

Wales

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During the Middle Ages, Wales was gradually conquered by the English. The institutional anglicisation of Wales was finalised with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542, which fully incorporated Wales into the Kingdom of England. This not only institutionally anglicised Wales, but brought about the anglicisation of the Welsh culture and language. Motives for anglicising Wales included securing Protestant England against incursions from Catholic powers in Continental Europe and promoting the power of the Welsh Tudor dynasty in the rest of England.[1]

Scholars have argued that industrialisation prevented Wales from being anglicised to the extent of Ireland and Scotland, as the majority of the Welsh people did not move abroad in search of employment during the early modern era, and thus did not have to learn to speak English. Furthermore, migration patterns created a cultural division of labour, with national migrants tending to work in coalfields or remain in rural villages, while non-national migrants were attracted to coastal towns and cities. This preserved monocultural Welsh communities, ensuring the continued prominence of the Welsh language and customs within them. However, other scholars argue that industrialisation and urbanisation led to economic decline in rural Wales, and given that the country's large towns and cities were anglicised, this led to an overall anglicisation of the nation.[1]

The Elementary Education Act 1870 and the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889 introduced compulsory English-language education into the Welsh educational system. English "was perceived as the language of progress, equality, prosperity, mass entertainment and pleasure". This and other administrative reforms resulted in the institutional and cultural dominance of English and marginalisation of Welsh, especially in the more urban south and north-east of Wales.[1] In 2022, the Commission for Welsh-speaking Communities warned that the emigration of Anglophones to Welsh-speaking villages and towns was putting the Welsh language at risk.[9]

Modern non-British Isles diasporas

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See also: Modern immigration to the United Kingdom
Harold Abrahams, an Anglicised athlete celebrated by British Jews for obtaining gold in the 1924 Olympics 100m sprint[10]

Jewish refugees in Britain at the turn of the 20th century were encouraged to Anglicise themselves by playing British sports.[11] Such assimilation was desired by both the immigrants and the local Anglo-Jewish elite, as it would preempt antisemitic and xenophobic prejudices.[12]

Anglo-America

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See also: Anglo-America and British America

Canada

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See also: Canada–United Kingdom relations § Cultural relations

The question of Anglicising populations outside of the British Isles first presented itself in the late 18th century, when the British Empire had to decide how to conciliate French Canadians to its rule.[13] Anglicisation was also expected of immigrants, particularly at the time that the country envisioned itself as part of a global British imperial community, until the cultural mosaic model took root in the late 20th century.[14]

United States

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See also: United Kingdom–United States relations § Culture and media

During the 19th and 20th centuries, there was a nationwide effort in the United States to anglicise all immigrants to the US. This was carried out through methods including (but not limited to) mandating the teaching of American English and having all immigrants change their first names to English-sounding names. This movement was known as Americanization and is considered a subset of Anglicization due to English being the dominant language in the United States.

Latin America

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This section is an excerpt from Latin America–United Kingdom relations § Independence era after 1820.[edit]
In long-term perspective, Britain's influence in Latin America was enormous after independence came in the 1820s. Britain intentionally sought to replace the Spanish in economic and cultural affairs. Military issues and the establishment of new colonies were minor factors. The influence was exerted through diplomacy, trade, banking, and investment in railways and mines. The English language and British cultural norms were transmitted by energetic young British business agents on temporary assignment in the major commercial centers, where they invited locals into the British leisure activities, such as organized sports, and into their transplanted cultural institutions such as clubs and schools. The impact on sports was overwhelming, as Latin America enthusiastically took up football (soccer). In Argentina, rugby, polo, tennis and golf became important in middle-class leisure. Cricket was ignored. The British role never disappeared, but it faded rapidly after 1914 as the British cashed in their investments to pay for their Great War, and the United States moved into the region with overwhelming force and similar cultural norms.

South Asia

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See also: British Raj § Legacy, and British influence in Pakistan

India

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Cricket is the most popular sport in South Asia. The local spirit of innovating under duress has led to gully (street) cricket[15]

Two centuries of imperial British influence saw India become the subject of intense discussions around the merit of Westernisation and modernisation on an ancient, unchanging culture. In the decades after India's 1947 independence, Anglicisation actually became more apparent in some respects: more people had learned English, which now was more significant in its capacity as a world language, and cricket was greatly popularised. Universal adult suffrage and higher levels of college attendance were also achieved.[16]

Language

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Linguistic anglicisation

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Main article: Anglicisation (linguistics)

Linguistic anglicisation is the practice of modifying foreign words, names, and phrases to make them easier to spell, pronounce or understand in English.[1][2] The term commonly refers to the respelling of foreign words, often to a more drastic degree than that implied in, for example, romanisation.

Non-English words may be anglicised by changing their form and/or pronunciation to something more familiar to English speakers. Some foreign place names are commonly anglicised in English. Examples include the Danish city København (Copenhagen), the Russian city of Moskva (Moscow), the Swedish city of Göteborg (Gothenburg), the Dutch city of Den Haag (The Hague), the Spanish city of Sevilla (Seville), the Egyptian city of Al-Qāhira (Cairo), and the Italian city of Firenze (Florence). The Indian city of Kolkata used to be anglicised as Calcutta, until the city chose to change its official name back to Kolkata in 2001. Anglicisation of words and names from indigenous languages occurred across the English-speaking world in former parts of the British Empire. Toponyms in particular have been affected by this process.

In the past, the names of people from other language areas were anglicised to a higher extent than today. This was the general rule for names of Latin or (classical) Greek origin. Today, the anglicised name forms are often retained for the more well-known persons, like Aristotle for Aristoteles, and Adrian (or later Hadrian) for Hadrianus. During the time in which there were large influxes of immigrants from Europe to the United States and United Kingdom during the 19th and 20th centuries, the names of many immigrants were never changed by immigration officials but only by personal choice.

Dominance of Anglo-/British English

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Britishisms (terms unique to British English) have entered American English over the centuries and continuing to this day, despite the modern global predominance of American English.[17] Globalisation and the increasing role of British journalists are cited as factors for this in the present day.[18]

Englishisation

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This section is an excerpt from Englishisation.[edit]
An amalgamation of the flags that represent America and Britain, the two countries at the forefront of spreading English across the world.
Englishisation refers to the introduction of English-language influences into other languages. English, as a world language, has had a very significant impact on other languages, with many languages borrowing words or grammar from English or forming calques based on English words.[19] Englishisation is often paired with the introduction of Western culture into other cultures,[20] and has resulted in a significant degree of code-mixing of English with other languages as well as the appearance of new varieties of English.[21][22] Other languages have also synthesised new literary genres through their contact with English,[23] and various forms of "language play" have emerged through this interaction.[24] Englishisation has also occurred in subtle ways because of the massive amount of English content that is translated into other languages.[25]

Sports

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This section is an excerpt from History of sport § The British Empire and post-colonial sports.[edit]

The influence of British sports and their codified rules began to spread across the world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly association football. A number of major teams elsewhere in the world still show these British origins in their names, such as A.C. Milan in Italy, Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense in Brazil, and Athletic Bilbao in Spain. Cricket became popular in several of the nations of the then British Empire, such as Australia, South Africa, India and Pakistan, and remain popular in and beyond today's Commonwealth of Nations. The revival of the Olympic Games by Baron Pierre de Coubertin was also heavily influenced by the amateur ethos of the English public schools.[26] The British played a major role in defining amateurism, professionalism, the tournament system and the concept of fair play.[27] Some sports developed in England, spread to other countries and then lost its popularity in England while remaining actively played in other countries, a notable example being bandy which remains popular in Finland, Kazakhstan, Norway, Russia, and Sweden.[28]

European morals and views on empires were embedded in the structure of sports. Ideas of "social discipline" and "loyalty" were key factors in European empire ettiequte, which eventually transferred into sports ettiequte. Also ideas of "patient and methodical training", were enforced to make soldiers stronger, and athletes better. Diffusion helped with the process of connecting these two concepts and has helped shaped the values of sports as we know it today. Sports like baseball, football (soccer), and cricket all came from European influence, and all share the same values based on European empires. [29]

Indirect influence

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See also: Americanization § Sports, and History of sports in the United States
Baseball, the American pastime, originates from England, with its predecessors' first mention in print being in A Little Pretty Pocket-Book (1744)

English pastimes and ideas influenced early American sporting practices significantly.[30] For example, Mark Dyreson has argued that American attempts to improve the world through sport took inspiration from British imperial models.[31] The England-originated philosophy of Muscular Christianity also played a role in shaping American attitudes towards sport and its global role by the turn of the 20th century.[32]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (1990). "2. The Anglicisation of Wales". English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change. Multilingual Matters. ISBN 978-1-85359-031-3. OCLC 44961554.
  2. ^ a b Bridge, Carl, and Fedorowich, Kent. The British World: Diaspora, Culture, and Identity, 2003, p. 89. "Beyond gaps in our information about who or what was affected by anglicisation is the matter of understanding the process more fully in terms of agency, periodisation, and extent and limitations."
  3. ^ Breen, T.H. (October 1986). "An Empire of Goods: The Anglicization of Colonial America, 1690–1776". Journal of British Studies. 25 (4). Cambridge University Press: 467–499. doi:10.1086/385874. S2CID 144798714. Retrieved 13 July 2021.
  4. ^ a b c Davies, R.R. (2000). "The Anglicization of the British Isles". First English Empire: Power and Identities in the British Isles 1093–1343 (Ford lectures; 1998). Oxford University Press. OCLC 940657419.
  5. ^ Withers, Charles W.J. (1984). Gaelic in Scotland, 1698-1981: the geographical history of a language. Edinburgh: J. Donald. ISBN 0-85976-097-9. OCLC 12078924.
  6. ^ Embleton, Sheila M.; Withers, Charles W.J. (September 1985). "Gaelic in Scotland 1698-1981: The Geographical History of a Language". Language. 61 (3): 718. doi:10.2307/414416. ISSN 0097-8507. JSTOR 414416.
  7. ^ a b Le Feuvre, David (1994). Jersey: Not Quite British: The Rural History of a Singular People. Jersey: Seaflower Books. ISBN 0-948578-57-2. OCLC 29846615.
  8. ^ a b c d e Kelleher, John D. (1991). The rural community in nineteenth century Jersey (Thesis). S.l.: typescript.
  9. ^ Morris, Steven (8 November 2022). "Second homes and Brexit pushing Welsh language to 'tipping point'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2022.
  10. ^ Dee, David (1 April 2012). "'Too Semitic' or 'Thoroughly 'Anglicised'? The Life and Career of Harold Abrahams". The International Journal of the History of Sport. doi:10.1080/09523367.2011.631006. ISSN 0952-3367.
  11. ^ Dee, David (2012). "'The Sunshine of Manly Sports and Pastimes': Sport and the Integration of Jewish Refugees in Britain, 1895–1914". Immigrants & Minorities. 30: 318–342. ISSN 0261-9288.
  12. ^ Hawkins, Samuel (2017). From 'undesirable alien' to proud British Jewry: the Jewish immigrant experience in memory and history, 1881 to present (phd thesis). University of Southampton.
  13. ^ Sturgis, James (1 October 1982). "Anglicisation at the Cape of good hope in the early nineteenth century". The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. doi:10.1080/03086538208582629.
  14. ^ ""Anglo-Conformity": Assimilation Policy in Canada, 1890s–1950s". search.worldcat.org. Retrieved 24 December 2024.
  15. ^ "In decoding the language of cricket, a look into the game's culture, gendered outlook and current lingual challenges". Firstpost. 9 August 2020. Retrieved 24 December 2024.
  16. ^ Chandavarkar, Rajnarayan (8 March 1990). "India for the English". London Review of Books. Vol. 12, no. 05. ISSN 0260-9592. Retrieved 24 December 2024.
  17. ^ Yagoda, Ben (26 September 2024). "The other British invasion: how UK lingo conquered the US". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
  18. ^ "Britishisms and the Britishisation of American English". BBC News. 26 September 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2024.
  19. ^ Bolton, Kingsley; Kachru, Braj B. (2006). World Englishes: Critical Concepts in Linguistics. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-31509-8.
  20. ^ Shibata, Ayako (2009). "Englishization in Asia: Language and Cultural Issues". Asian Englishes. 12 (2): 84–87. doi:10.1080/13488678.2009.10801262. ISSN 1348-8678. S2CID 154078463.
  21. ^ Bolton, Kingsley; Kachru, Braj B. (2006). World Englishes: Critical Concepts in Linguistics. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-31509-8.
  22. ^ Chapelle, Carol A., ed. (30 January 2013). The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0550.pub2. ISBN 978-1-4051-9473-0. S2CID 236410953.
  23. ^ Kachru, Yamuna; Nelson, Cecil L. (1 April 2006). World Englishes in Asian Contexts. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 978-962-209-755-1.
  24. ^ Rivlina, Alexandra A. (27 November 2019), Nelson, Cecil L.; Proshina, Zoya G.; Davis, Daniel R. (eds.), "Bilingual Language Play and World Englishes", The Handbook of World Englishes (1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 407–429, doi:10.1002/9781119147282.ch23, ISBN 978-1-119-16421-0, S2CID 213855655, retrieved 29 October 2023
  25. ^ Kruger, Alet; Wallmach, Kim; Munday, Jeremy (16 June 2011). Corpus-Based Translation Studies: Research and Applications. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4411-8919-6.
  26. ^ Harold Perkin, "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire and Commonwealth." The International Journal of the History of Sport 6.2 (1989): 145-155.
  27. ^ Sigmund Loland, "Fair play in sports contests-a moral norm system." Sportwissenschaft 21.2 (1991): 146-162.
  28. ^ "Svenska Bandyförbundet, bandyhistoria 1875–1919" (in Swedish). Iof1.idrottonline.se. 1 February 2013. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2014.
  29. ^ Laurent, Dubois. Diffusion and Empire, The Oxford Handbook of Sports History. Robert Edlemen and Wayne Wilson. pp. 174–175.
  30. ^ Pope, Steven W.; Nauright, John (1 October 2016). "American-British Sporting Rivalries and the Making of the Global Sports Industry". Comparative American Studies. 14 (3–4): 302–319. doi:10.1080/14775700.2016.1242694. ISSN 1477-5700.
  31. ^ Pope, Steven W. (2015). "Rethinking Sport, Empire, and American Exceptionalism". Sport History Review. 46 (1): 71–99. doi:10.1123/shr.46.1.71. ISSN 1087-1659.
  32. ^ McKay, Brett and Kate (13 September 2016). "When Christianity Was Muscular". The Art of Manliness. Retrieved 21 December 2024.
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